cotton fabrics: muslin, chintz, calico alternative fabrics: linen (textile made out of flax), wool, silk, hemp piece goods - finished product cotton manufacturing process - ginning - removing seeds seeds are used for cottonseed oil -- roller gin (handheld or foot operated) - spinning - twisting fibers to produce yarn (пряжа) -- spinning wheel (само-прялка) invented in india distaff (ручная прялка) -- spindle (веретено) - carding - organizing - weaving -- loom (ткаций станок) -- shuttle (челнок) -- warp - "straight" thread of yarn -- weft - "crosswise thread of yarn pulled by the shuttle - printing war capitalism merchant capitalism industrial capitalism - cotton varieties -- sea island cotton - extra long staple (ELS) cotton, came from barbados -- upland cotton - cotton manufacturing happened in India/China/Americas, Anatolia (Turkey) cotton was planted along other crops and then span and woven during at opportune times -- most cotton was produced spun and consumed domestically there -- Western, particularly Brithish merchants, using war capitalism inserted themselves into the trade, paid for cotton in -- protected local manufacturers until they are able to compete globally - african trade is was more than 50 percent indian (later british) cotton goods - african demand for cotton in part was due to the spread of islam requiring women's modesty - mechanization ginning mechanical cotton gin - Eli Whitney, hand poweverd, or horse/water driven damages fiber, not good for long-staple cotton, but good enough for upland cotton and coarse textiles spinning - spinning jenny - multi-spindle frame, invented by James Hargreaves 1764: water powered - water frame - Richard Arkwright 1767, produced thinner, better yarn than spinning jenny, water can spin only one thread att a time - spinning mule - Samuel Crompot 1779, draws and twists on fist stroke, wraps into spindle on retur weaving - flying shuttle (челнок) John Kay 1750, can throw shuttle acorss warp - power loom 1784 Edmund Cartwright - East India Company tried to switch some land in India from producing opium to growing cotton, also cotton competed with tea - mechanized spinning increases labor productivity 100 times - by 1880, Russia becomes self-sufficient in cotton cloth manufacturing - in 1860, Great Britain produced 67% cotton cloth exports - by 1860 cotton cloth manufacturing becomes the largest part of US economy - cotton planting started in the carribean and south america (Brazil) but had to compete, unfavorably, with sugar planting - cotton goods manufacturing has two labor intensive stages: growing and cloth producing - Egypt under Muhammad Ali tried to industrialize cotton manufacturing 1830ies. Set up modern manufactures. use import substitution. Even exported cloth to middle east and India. Failed due to lack of wage labor: workers were compelled to work on factories. Used war capitalism internally. Failed by 1850ies - Brazil (and Mexico) tried to industrialize. In Brazil, cotton manufacturing and its needs competed with interests of slave-based sugar growing planters: - need of protection of local industry (with tariffs) for import substitution, runs counter to lower tariffs needed to export sugar - need for labor competed against labor needed on plantations failed by 1870 - India tried to industrialize, failed major point: a strong state willing to protect local capitalists and secure local and, later, global markets is needed for industrialization industrial capitalism: need to mobilize labor. Effecitve way to do so: deprive workers of alternative means of subsistence. Use state to "enforce contracts" by compelling worker to work to ease of labor mobilization is to use the most vulnerable and docile: women and children. part of the reason it succeeded: proletarianization was not complete: families were using wages to supplement their farm production merchant profession classification - dealer: buys and owns cotton, sells it to manufacturer, may advance sales - broker: finds seller and buyer on comission (brokers the deal), owns nothing -- seller's broker/byer's broker: represents seller and buyer - (overseas) merchant: buys in one port, sells in the other. Usually does not own cotton, charges consignment fee for shipping - factor: deals with cotton growers in America. Advances credit to, buys cotton from, delivers staples. ports - Liverpool: center of slave trade, cotton was return comoddity, proximity to spinning and textile manufacture in lancashire - La Havre: supplies cotton industry of france and western germany - Bremen: return commodity for european migrans, far from manufacturing centers standardization of cotton - hard to hand hand inspect, one invention: sample that can be carried around and even mailed - early 19th century: grades, first voluntary then enforceable: premim, good, fair, middling, ordinary, below grade - cotton differs by length of staple, color, presence of dirt - merchants were powerful due to their globe-spanning activities and unpredictability of trade. Due to weak legal system, created network of trust, usually familial (religious, or place of origin): House of Barring, of Brown, of Rothchild Penetrated and influenced state. Once state secured trade, influence of merchant captialists declined. - before US civil war, 61 percent of US export was raw cotton. 60+% of British, 70+% of French and 90+% of Russian raw cotton exports came from US. - in europe is known as "cotton famine" - Bombay merchants started a collection for "starving liverpool weavers" - price of cotton quadrupled in 2 years. Indian output doubled. 16% of british input before the war, 60+% during. Even more for France. - Liverpool merchants and manufacturers lobbied for state intervention -- to imporve infrastructure: ports, railroads -- legal framework: better code for land wonership, making cotton adulteraion a crime, enforcing futures contracts where output and land is a collateral - officials were not keen on radially transforming indian countryside in fear of losing control of the colony in view of 1957 sepoi rebellion last part of 19-th century - imperial state was used to induce "the global country side" to produce more cotton and consume more cotton goods: through consolidation of land ownership - with invention of telegaph and railroad, and proliferation of futures trade, a lot of risk and speculation was taken out of trading. Merchants have to vertically integrate. First example VC(?) traders in india. 1862 the number of contracts on Manchester Mercantile exchange was slightly greater than the total price of cotton traded. 10 years later, it was 7 times as large: the point was speculation on cotton futures. Needed standardization. Standardized on middling upland cotton. metropolian capital replaced tranditional forms of money-lending to agriculturalists, intermediaries were sqeezed out - ante-bellum factors were gone, as railroads and telegraph allowed direct purchases of cotton in such cities as Dallas and Memphis as well as bringing city-manufactured wares to the agricultural workers - indian money-lenders were replaced by european capitalists - with abolition of slavery, gang-labor was ineffective. Most effective: share cropping or land leasing, occasional wage work (rural proletariat). With agricultural workers subservient to land owners, money lenders (lending at 12 to 20 to 40% against future harvest) inducing to produce cash crops, rather than subsistence crops white yeoman farmers got into cotton production. In 1880ies 41 of cotton in georgia was produced by whites. Same dynamics as blacks: become indebted - deindustrializatio: when (Indian) weavers and spinners abandoned their occupations - Japanese imported most of cotton form (British) india and the US. To eliminate this dependency, induced their colonies: Korea and Taiwan to grow cotton for export - raising cash crops instead of subsistence crops made growers subject to global pricing volatility and starvation - great indian famine (1876-78), total death of 5.5 million people - russian government conquered central asia and converted agriculture to cotton production such that grain has to be imported - germany did not have many colonies, tried to cultivate it in Togo in general cotton production in africa failed due to reluctance of cultivators to produce cotton as cash crops while subsistence crops were available, state (as in german and belgian colonies) had to resort to coersion. Exporting competed with local spinners and weavers. - 20-30-eith of 20th century textile production moved to global south - example: city of Ahmedabad in Gujarat, opened a spinning and textile mill merchants were shut out of global market invested in production. Imported machines and mechanics from great britain. - britains share of spinning in world production declined since US civil war - Japan, imported spinning machine from britain and encouraged domestic production Sino-Japanese war (1894-1895 primariliy over control of Korea). Opened access to cheap Chinese cotton ran factories in two 12-hour shifts, super-exploited unmarried women - India, workers mostly male, sent one family member ot work at factories to maintain access to land. State being a colony of GB had difficulty protecting its manufacturers. Manchester campaigned for better working conditions (and thus more expensive labor) in India - US does not contain uniform market for labor. Textile and spinning decamped from new england and northern states to the south.